- info -Nui. aims at the concept 'Beyond all borders'. On the 1st floor, cafe& bar lounge, our guests and Japanese local people come and look forward to coff Jan 13, · 女児虐待死事件で死刑求める市民. 韓国で昨年10月、養子として引き取られた1歳4カ月の女児が養父母から虐待を受け死亡した事件の初公判がソウル南部地裁で開かれた。 The variable raw contains a string with 1,, characters. (We can see that it is a string, using type(raw).)This is the raw content of the book, including many details we are not interested in such as whitespace, line breaks and blank lines
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The most important source of texts is undoubtedly the Web. It's convenient to have existing text collections to explore, such as the corpora we saw in the previous chapters. However, you probably have your own text sources in mind, and need to learn how to access them.
In order to address these questions, we will be covering key concepts in NLP, including tokenization and stemming. Along the way you will consolidate your Python knowledge and learn about strings, files, and regular expressions.
Since so much text on the web is in HTML format, we will also see how to dispense with markup. Important: From this chapter onwards, our program samples will assume you begin your interactive session or your program with the following import statements:. A small sample of texts from Project Gutenberg appears in the NLTK corpus collection. However, you may be interested in analyzing other texts from Project Gutenberg. Text number is an English translation of Crime and Punishmentand we can access it as follows.
The read process will take a few seconds as it downloads this large book. If you're using an internet proxy which is not correctly detected by Python, you may need to specify the proxy manually as follows:. The variable raw contains a string with 1, characters. We can see that it is a string, using type raw. This is the raw content of the book, including many details we are not interested in such as whitespace, line breaks and blank lines.
For our language processing, we want to break up the string into words and punctuation, how to write an application letter 015b, as we saw in 1. This step is called tokenizationand it produces our familiar structure, a list of words and punctuation. Notice that NLTK was needed for tokenization, but not for any of the earlier tasks of opening a URL and reading it into a string.
If we now take the further step of creating an NLTK text from this list, we can carry out all of the other linguistic processing we saw in 1along with the regular list operations like slicing:. Notice that Project Gutenberg appears as a collocation. This is because each text downloaded from Project Gutenberg contains a header with the name of the text, the how to write an application letter 015b, the names of people who scanned and corrected the text, a license, and so on.
Sometimes this information appears in a footer at the end of the file. We cannot reliably detect where the content begins and ends, and so have to resort to manual inspection of the file, to discover unique strings that mark the beginning and the end, before trimming raw to be just the content and nothing else:. The find and rfind "reverse find" methods help us get the right index values to use for slicing the string.
We overwrite raw with this slice, so now it begins with "PART I" and goes up to but not including the phrase that marks the end of the content. This was our first brush with the reality of the web: texts found on the web may contain unwanted material, and there may not be an automatic way to remove it.
But with a small amount of extra work we can extract the material we need. Much of the text on the web is in the form of HTML documents. You can use a web browser to save a page as text to a local file, then access this as described in the section on files below. However, if you're going to do this often, it's easiest to get Python to do the work directly.
The first step is the same as before, using urlopen. For fun we'll pick a BBC News story called Blondes to die out in yearsan urban legend passed along by the BBC as established scientific fact:. You can type print html to see the HTML content in all its glory, including meta tags, an image map, JavaScript, forms, and tables. Getting text out of HTML is a sufficiently common task that NLTK provides a helper function nltk.
We can then tokenize this to get our familiar text structure:. This still contains unwanted material concerning site navigation and related stories. With some trial and error you can find the start and end indexes of the content and select the tokens of interest, and initialize a text as before. The web can how to write an application letter 015b thought of as a huge corpus of unannotated text.
Web search engines provide an efficient means of searching this large quantity of text for relevant linguistic examples. The main advantage of search engines is size: since you are searching such a large set of documents, you are more likely to find any linguistic pattern you are interested in. Furthermore, you can make how to write an application letter 015b of very specific patterns, which would only match one or two examples on a smaller example, but which might match tens of thousands of examples when run on the web.
A second advantage of web search engines is that they are very easy to use. Thus, they provide a very convenient tool for quickly checking a theory, to see if it is reasonable.
Table 3. Liberman, in LanguageLog Unfortunately, search engines have how to write an application letter 015b significant shortcomings. First, the allowable range of search patterns is severely restricted. Unlike local corpora, where you write programs to search for arbitrarily complex patterns, search engines generally only allow you to search for individual words or strings of words, sometimes with wildcards. Second, search engines give inconsistent results, and can give widely different figures when used at different times or in different geographical regions.
When content has been duplicated across multiple sites, search results may be boosted, how to write an application letter 015b. Finally, the markup in the result returned by a search engine may change unpredictably, breaking any pattern-based method of locating particular content a problem which is ameliorated by the use of search engine APIs.
Your Turn: Search the web for "the of" inside quotes. Based on the large count, can how to write an application letter 015b conclude that the of is a frequent collocation in English? The blogosphere is an important source of text, in both formal and informal registers.
Note that the resulting strings have a u prefix to indicate that they are Unicode strings see 3. With some further work, we can write programs to create a small corpus of blog posts, and use this as the basis for our NLP work. In order to read a local file, we need to use Python's built-in open function, followed by the read method.
Suppose you have a file document, how to write an application letter 015b. txtyou can load its contents how to write an application letter 015b this:. Your Turn: Create a file called document.
txt using a text editor, and type in a few lines of text, and save it as plain text. If you are using IDLE, select the New Window command in the File menu, typing the required text into this window, how to write an application letter 015b, and then saving the file as document. txt inside the directory that IDLE offers in the pop-up dialogue box. txt'then inspect its contents using print f. Various things might have gone wrong when you tried this.
If the interpreter couldn't find your file, you would have seen an error like this:. To check that the file that you are trying to open is really in the right directory, use IDLE's Open command in the File menu; this will display a list of all the files in the directory where IDLE is running. An alternative is to examine the current directory from within Python:. Another possible problem you might have encountered when accessing a text file is the newline conventions, which are different for different operating systems.
The built-in open function has a second parameter for controlling how the file is opened: open 'document. txt''rU' — 'r' means to open the file for reading the defaultand 'U' stands for "Universal", which lets us ignore the different conventions used for marking newlines. Assuming that you can open the file, there are several methods for reading it.
The read method creates a string with the contents of the entire file:. We can also read a file one line at a time using a for loop:. Here we use the strip method to remove the newline character at the end of the input line. NLTK's corpus files can also be accessed using these methods. We simply have how to write an application letter 015b use nltk.
find to get the filename for any corpus item. Then we can open and read it in the way we just demonstrated above:. ASCII text and HTML text are human readable formats. Text often comes in binary formats — like PDF and MSWord — that can only be opened using specialized software. Third-party libraries such as pypdf and pywin32 provide access these formats. Extracting text from multi-column documents is particularly challenging.
For once-off conversion of a few documents, how to write an application letter 015b, it is simpler to open the document with a suitable application, then save it as text to your local drive, and access it as described below.
If the document is already on the web, you can enter its URL in Google's search box. The search result often includes a link to an HTML version of the document, which you can save as text. Sometimes we want to capture the text that a user inputs when she is interacting with how to write an application letter 015b program. After saving the input to a variable, we can manipulate it just as we have done for other strings.
One step, normalization, will be discussed in 3. Figure 3. Text object; we can also lowercase all the words and extract the vocabulary. There's a lot going on in this pipeline. To understand it properly, it helps to be clear about the type of each variable that it mentions.
We find out the type of any Python object x using type xe. Normalizing and sorting lists produces other lists:. The type of an object determines what operations you can perform on it. So, for example, we can append to a list but not to a string:.
Similarly, we can concatenate strings with strings, and lists with lists, but we cannot concatenate strings with lists:, how to write an application letter 015b. It's time to study a fundamental data type that we've been studiously avoiding so far.
How To Write a Cover Letter For a Medical Assistant Position? - Example
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